VMBO Year 2 · HAVO/VWO Years 2–3 · Inheritance and evolution · Section 5.6

DNA technologies

What is biotechnology?

Biotechnology uses organisms or their components to make useful products. Traditional examples include yoghurt and bread-making, without directly editing DNA.

Some modern methods alter DNA, for example to produce medicines or industrial enzymes.

Genetic modification

Genetic modification changes an organism's DNA using laboratory methods to obtain particular characteristics. An organism is transgenic if foreign DNA from another species has been introduced; not every genetically modified organism is transgenic.

Examples studied or developed include disease-resistant crops, potatoes protected against particular diseases, and rice producing beta-carotene, which the body can convert into vitamin A.

Microorganisms can also produce industrial enzymes, including enzymes used in textile processing such as stonewashed denim.

Recombinant DNA

Recombinant-DNA techniques join DNA sequences in new combinations. A sequence may come from another species.

For example, suitably modified bacteria can produce human insulin used to treat diabetes.

CRISPR-Cas and gene editing

CRISPR-Cas is one approach to targeted genome editing. A guide directs a Cas protein towards a chosen DNA sequence. Cutting and cellular repair processes can then allow a sequence to be disrupted, removed or changed.

Related approaches are used in research, crop development and some medical treatments. Research examples include disease resistance in cacao, altered caffeine production in coffee, changes to wheat proteins and modified tomato traits. Not every research application is an available commercial product.

Gene therapy aims to treat disease by changing genetic material or how it is used. Genome editing is one possible method, but not the only one.

Discussion about genetic modification

Potential benefits and concerns depend on the specific organism, trait and use.

• Possible benefits: Better crop yields, disease resistance, reduced need for some pesticides and useful medicines.
• Possible concerns: Effects on ecosystems, changes in biodiversity or genetic diversity, unexpected outcomes and ethical questions.

Evaluation requires evidence rather than assuming every application has the same risks or benefits.

Genomics

Genomics studies an organism's complete genetic material. It supports research into diseases and treatments and can help select breeding animals using genetic information.

DNA tests

DNA tests can investigate inherited conditions, biological relationships, identity in forensic work or the species present in a sample.

Cost, speed and reliability depend on the test and sample. Results require appropriate interpretation; no test answers every question with certainty.

Environmental DNA

Environmental DNA, or eDNA, is genetic material collected from surroundings such as water, soil, air or snow. It can reveal evidence of organisms without catching or directly observing them.

Synthetic biology

Synthetic biology involves designing or constructing biological systems and materials, including DNA. Research applications include waste processing, biofuel production and storing digital information in DNA.

These approaches may offer useful future tools, but practical limits and environmental effects still need assessment.